Zvimwe mashoko ari mumitauro iyi anogona kunge ashandurwa nechigadzirwa chemachina uye anogona kusanganisira zvikanganiso. Kubatsira kuvandudzwa kwayo Ona chinyorwa chekutanga muChirungu
Mazuva eguta uye mwedzi pamusoro pezuva renyika, sezvakaonekwa kubva kuInternational Space Station.
Red Initiative

Visual pollution

Tinozvidzivirira nezvokunzwa uye nekufema.Zvinotiona zuva nezuva zvinoumba pfungwa dzedu, kutenda kwedu kune nzvimbo yedu, uyewo kuti tinofara sei panzvimbo iyoyo.

NASA

Visual pollution ndeyekukuvadza uye kusvibiswa kwenzvimbo dzedu dzekugara: vandalism pamadziro, mabhasikoro uye matombo, matambudziko ezvematongerwo enyika nenharaunda nenzira, uye kusava nehanya kuti hapana munhu anogadzirisa. Hapana munhu anotaura nezvezvirwere izvi nekuti hazvina kuitika nemunhu wese. Asi inodhura vanhu mari yakawanda, inoita kuti vaonekwe sevanhu vane hutano hwakanaka, uye nzvimbo dzavanoda zvikuru, dzimba dzemabhizimisi, mapaki, mahombekombe nenzvimbo dzakachena, dzinoramba dzichive nzvimbo dzainodzora.

Chii chinokosha, uye chii chisina kukosha

Hapana chinhu chinobata maziso chinonzi kukuvadza. Mugwagwa unotarisirwa kuva nehupenyu.

  • Zviratidzo uye mabhizimusi emabhaisikopo, akaiswa zvakanaka, ndiwo chikamu chemugwagwa. Zviratidzo zvemashopu, zviratidziro zvechitima, mabhenji emusika uye zvikwereti zvakatsvuka zveTokyo kana Times Square ndezvimwe zvezvinhu zvinoita kuti guta riite serinogara, zvichibatsira vanhu kuwana nzira yavo, uye kutsigira bhizinesi rekunze. Chii chinokosha ndechekuisa uye kukwira: zviratidzo zvinoremekedza hunyanzvi hwechivakwa, zvinogara kunze kwefenza dzemaguta nenzvimbo dzinotaridzika zvakanaka, uye hazvina kuratidzwa zvakajeka kana zvakashongedzwa kuti zvishandise vatyairi. Mumwe munhu anofanira kutevedzera mitemo yemunharaunda, kwete pfungwa dzevanhu.
  • Murairidzi anopa murayiridzi uye street art akagadzirwa neruzivo rwemugari anogona kushandura bhatani reimba yekare kuita nzvimbo yekuratidzira.
  • Graffiti vandalism, kusvibisa kana kusvibisa pasina mvumo panzvimbo dzevanhu, mabhasikoro evanhu uye zvivakwa zvenyika, ndeimwe yemhando dzakaomarara kwazvo dzekuparadza nharaunda mumigwagwa.
  • Energy uye telecoms infrastructure: transmission pylons, overhead power lines uye tangles of street cables, izvo zvinogona kudzora mafambiro ekunze nemadziro kwemakore.
  • Kukanganisa: zvivakwa zvakarwa, midziyo yakakuvadzwa, mvura yemusango uye kubvisa zvinhu.

Graffiti: icho chikonzero chekuoma kwese

Graffiti vandalism inoonekwa senzira yekuvaratidza pachako pasina kukonzera matambudziko. Vanhu vanobhadhara mari yechikafu ichi uye vari kurarama nechikafu ichi, vanoiona nenzira dzakasiyana. Nekuti zvose zvinonzi nechitima, chigaro chebhasi, chikoro kana chitoro zvinofanirwa kuchenesa, kusvibisa kana kuchinjaniswa, uye mari iyi inosvika kubva kumabhazi, mitero, mari dzemumba nemitengo: kubva kune vese.

Chii chinodhura

  • Germany’s railway, Deutsche Bahn, puts the damage from graffiti at about €12 million a year, and recorded some 32,000 cases of vandalism across its network in 2024 (Bahnblogstelle, 2025).
  • London’s boroughs yakaita £7 million pagore pa graffiti uye masangano ezvitima akaitwa ne£6 million, pasina kusanganisira kuchinja kweacid-etched Underground windows, izvo zvaizowedzera £10 million. The London Assembly yakafungidzira huwandu hwemari yezvehupfumi hweLondon pa pamusoro £ 100 miriyoni pagore (London Assembly, 2002).
  • MuUnited States, huwandu hwe $12 bhiriyoni gore rinotaurwa mudzidziso yepolice, kunyangwe hazvo kuongororwa kwayo kwakabva pakutanga hakuratidzwe (Weisel, US Department of Justice, 2009). Zviri pachena kuti makambani, maguta, zvikoro uye vatengesi vemabhizimisi madiki vachabhadhara mari iyi.

Mari dzinoenda kunze kwekuchenesa. Mabhasikoro nemotokari dzinotora nguva yakareba kuti dzichiwedzerwe, mabhodhoro akasvibiswa neacid anofanira kugadziriswa asi kwete kuswa, uye kubvisa zvinhu zvakaita sezvishongo, matombo kana mapurasitiki kunokuvadza nzvimbo dzaifanira kuchengetwa. Pazvivakwa zvekare uye matombo, imwe chete usiku peturu spray inogona kukonzera kukuvadza kwakachengeteka kune zvinhu zvakararama kwemakore.

A city worker in a hard hat and respirator scrubbing a graffiti tag off a utility box on a street corner, in black and white.
Mumwe mugari weguta achibvisa magraffiti pamugwagwa unoenda kuPike neHarvard muSeattle, 1999. Kana uchida kubvisa chero chinhu, shandisa nguva nemari yako. Photo: Seattle Municipal Archives, CC BY 2.0

Chii chinoitika kune vanhu

Heavy graffiti inoita kuti nzvimbo iite seyakaoma. Vagari uye vafambi vanoiverenga sechiratidzo chekuti hapana munhu ari kutungamira: ongororo nedzidzo dzepanzvimbo dzinobatanidza zvakajeka kusagadzikana, kusanganisira graffiti nemvura yakasviba, kune kuwedzera kwekushungurudzika kwehuori, kuderera kwekutenda munharaunda uye kuderera kwekuzvipira kune nzvimbo (Sampson and Raudenbush, 2004). Vanhu vanofunga kuti neighborhood yavo iri kushungurudzika vanotaurawo nezvekushungurudzwa, kusagadzikana uye kushushikana, zvikuru nekuti kusagadzikana kunokonzera kusavimbika (Ross naMirowsky, 2009); muimwe dzidzo, kushaya hutano kwevagari vematunhu akaderera kwaka explicated almost entirely by perceived disorder and fear (Ross naMirowsky, 2001). Kugadzirisa nzvimbo kunobatsira: muongororo yakaitwa nevanhu vasingazivikanwe muPhiladelphia, kubvisa mabhawa uye kuchengetera zvicherwa panzvimbo dzakavharwa kwakaderedza huwandu hwevanhu vanoita zvehuori ne39 percent uye kuti havafarire kuenda kunze kwemugwagwa ne58 percent (Branas et al., 2018), uye yakaderera manzwiro ekurwadziwa pakati pevagari vekumaodzanyemba (South et al., 2018). That stress falls hardest on those who cannot choose to move away: older people, children and families on low incomes.

Kushungurudzika kunopararira here?

Mu 1982 James Q. Wilson naGeorge Kelling vakapikisa mu * The Atlantic * kuti kushungurudzika kunoonekwa, kwakabva kwasara pasina kugadziriswa, zvinoratidza kuti hapana munhu anotya uye anokurudzira zvakawanda zvakaipa: chirongwa che “zvivharo zvakaputsika” (Wilson naKelling, 1982). Chivimbo chakasimba chekuedza chakauya muchidimbu. Muchikamu chekuongorora kwenzvimbo dzese muGroningen, kuNetherlands, vatsvakurudzi vakaenzanisa nzvimbo dzakachengetwa zvakachena nedzo dzaiva negraffiti. Ne graffiti pamadziro, chikamu chevanhu vakasiya maflyers sezvicherwa zvakakwira kubva pa33 kusvika pa69 percent, uye chikamu chevaive vachitora envelope ine mari yechikwereti kubva kubhokisi remapepa chakawedzera kubva pa13 kusvika pa27 percent (Keizer, Lindenberg and Steg, 2008).

Kuongorora kunotakurwa, uye zvakakosha kuti unzwisise zvakajeka zvaunotaura. Zviratidzo chekuti kusagadzikana kunopararira zviri kunyatsojeka; asi zviratidzo chekuti kutevedzera mitemo yakaoma pakuuraya vanhu vanoita zvehuori kuri pasi pesimba. Kuongorora kwedzidzo 30 kwakaona kuti nzira dzekutadza-kutarisana nematambudziko dzinoderedza mhosva zvakakwana, uye kuti nzira dzenharaunda uye dzekugadzirisa nyaya, senge kubvisa nzvimbo uye kushanda nevagari, dzakashanda zvakanaka kupfuura kusungwa kwemabasa (Braga, Welsh and Schnell, 2015). Chidzidzo hachisi chekuuraya zvakaoma, asi kugadziridza zviri nyore uye kusanganisira nharaunda.

A tag akabvisa mazuva akafanana ndicho chikumbiro yakakanganwa. A tag akabva kwemwedzi ndechikumbiro akagamuchira.

Chii chinoshanda

  • Rapid removal. Iyo yakanyanya kuzivikanwa mhedzisiro ndeyeNew York City’s subway. Kutanga muna 1984, kana kuti mushure mekunge mota yachena, yakachengetwa ichichena: chero graffiti nyowani yaibvisa mukati memazuva maviri kana kuti mota yaive isina kushandiswa, saka migwagwa yakashongedzwa haisi kuzofamba. Mumwedzi waMay 1989, ndege dzese dzakave dzisina graffiti. Mamwe maguta anoedza kubvisa zvinyorwa zvemagraffiti mukati me24 kusvika 48 mazuva, nekuti kubvisa kwacho kunotora mukana wekuonekwa (Weisel, 2009).
  • Murairi wemufananidzo uye mufananidzo wakapihwa. Philadelphia’s Mural Arts Program yakatanga muna 1984 sePhiladelphia Anti-Graffiti Network, iyo yakatanga kushanda nevanonyora vechidiki vemufananidzo kuti vaite mavara emurairidzi (Mural Arts Philadelphia). Izvi zvakaita kuti zvive nevanhu vanopfuura 4,000 vakagadzira mabasa ezvemagariro ezvematongerwo enyika pamwe nenharaunda dzemunharaunda, uye zvakava chiratidzo cheguta (City in Pennsylvania USA). Mativi akapihwa uko vagadziri vanogona kupenda zviri pamutemo vanopa nzvimbo yehunyanzvi pasina kuisa pamwechete vese.
  • Protective design. Anti-graffiti coating panzvimbo dzinokuvadza, yakanaka kupisa, kugara sezvirimwa zvinokwezva pane zvishongedzo zvemabwe, uye nzvimbo dzevanhu dzakashandiswa zvakanaka kuita kuti vandalism ive yakanyanya kuoma uye kubvisa mvura yakaderera.
  • Kugara kwevanhu munharaunda. Zvirongwa zvekutora bhasikoro, kubvisa mabhatiri emagetsi, uye kushandisa maapps ekuzivisa zvinoitika zvinoita kuti vanhu vaite sevanochengeta bhasikoro ravo.
A large abstract mural in blue light-trails on the side of a building beside the Schuylkill River in Philadelphia.
Convergence by Rebecca Rutstein, a commissioned mural of the City of Philadelphia Mural Arts Program, 2019. Photo: Rebecca Rutstein, CC BY-SA 4.0

Kudzidzisa vana kuti hunyanzvi hunokosha sei

Vacheche vanoda kudhonza pamadziro, uye kuti hunyanzvi hwavo hunokosha. Chimwe chinhu vanofanira kudzidza ndechekuti kwete kuti kugadzira zvinhu hazvina basa, asi kuti mumba unopihwa munhu mumwe chete, uye kuti vamwe vanhu vanorarama nezvinhu zvataisa pazvo. Masangano ezvikoro, emamhuri uye emabhawa anogona:

  • Vadzidzisi vanofanira kugara vachipa vana vavo nzvimbo yekutamba. Mativi ezvikoro, mahodhi anotarisana nenzvimbo dzekuvaka, zvitima zvinopinda pasi pevhu uye dzimba dzevanhu vanogona kuva nechimiro chemavara chavanoda, kana vabereki vakapa mvumo yekuti vana vaite izvi.
  • Teach consent. Pashure pekupeta chero chinhu, taura nemugari, uye bvunza neighbors avo vachaona zuva rega rega. Kutaura kuti munhu asingafarire kurarama muhupenyu hwakanaka hakusi chinhu chinokosha.
  • Show the other side. Invite the caretaker, the bus driver or the shop owner to explain what cleaning a tag costs them, in money and time.
  • Inopa nzvimbo yekutamba. Makirabhu ezvemavara, zvinyorwa zvemabhuku, mabhawa emasango uye misangano yevatambi vemusango vanopa vatambi vechidiki nzira yekuonekwa uye kufara nezvavo.
  • Respect that not everyone wants it. Vamwe vanhu vanoda kuti vaite mavara panzvimbo dzese dzekugara; vamwe vanofarira zvinhu zvakadai sechiedza, brick kana kuti nzvimbo dzakachena. Muzinda wakabatanidzwa unofanira kunge une nzvimbo yese.
A long road tunnel under a railway, its walls and ceiling covered from end to end in colorful painted pieces.
Leake Street, a road tunnel under Waterloo station in London, where painting on the walls is allowed. Mapasi epamutemo seaya anopa vatambi nzvimbo yekutamba pasina kumanikidza basa ravo kune vanhu vasina kuisarudza. Photo: Maggie Jones, public domain

Mamwe masimba, mapylons uye ma cables

Yese yezvematongerwo enyika iyo inoumba kutarisa, kutakura kwesimba rinowanzova nenguva yakareba. A line of steel pylons inogona kudzora mugwagwa wemakore mazhinji; a web of overhead cables inogona kudzima magetsi eguta uye kuchengeta zvivakwa zvaro.

A line of high-voltage pylons crossing green farmland and woods in Devon, England.
Mugwagwa wemagetsi unofamba pakati pezvimwe zvivakwa muSouth Hams, Devon. Photo: Lewis Clarke, CC BY-SA 2.0

Mabhatiri emagetsi ane simba guru akakosha zvikuru: anotakura simba kubva kumafaro emhepo, mabhenji ezuva uye nzvimbo dzemagetsi kuenda kune vanhu vari kugara, uye kuchinja kwesimba kuchada akawanda. Asi kuti dziri kuvakwa sei uye kupi, zvinokosha kune vanhu vari kumativi avo. A dzidzo yekutengesa imba muQuebec yakaona kuti a kuratidzwa kwechiso chemativi kana ma cables ayo anogona kudzikisa mutengo weimba ne5 percent kusvika kupfuura 20 percent, asi kungova pedyo nechitima chinoenda, kunze kwekuona, hakuite (Des Rosiers, 2002). Pylons mu open landscapes uye national parks ndeimwe yeanonyanya kuonekwa marudzi ezvivakwa vanhu vanoumba.

Kuburikidza kabhoni anogadzirisa kuratidzwa asi kwete bhiri. Underground transmission cables zvinonyanya kudhura 5 kusvika 10 nguva sezvinobvira kuumba sezvimwe zvinyorwa zvepasi (ENTSO-E neEuropacable, 2010). Panguva yese yekurarama chigaro chinodzikira: UK engineering dzidzo inoisa mazita epasi rose pa £2.2 kusvika ku£4.2 miriyoni pakilomita, zvichienzaniswa ne£10.2 kusvika ku£24.1 miriyoni ekuvhurwa kwekabhoni, nenzvimbo dzepasi pevhu dzinosvika 4.7 nguva yehupenyu hwemari pane imwe nzira yemuenzaniso (IET uye Parsons Brinckerhoff, 2012). Buried kabhoni zvakare zviri nyore kugadzirirwa uye kuchinjisa akareba trench kuburikidza uswa uye nzvimbo dzekugara. For local distribution lines on streets, US utilities report underground construction at five to ten times the cost of new overhead lines, although buried lines are far less exposed to storms (Edison Electric Institute, 2013).

Chimwe chezvikonzero ndechekuti tinofanira kusarudza zvakanaka: kuchera mabhatiri panzvimbo dzinokosha zvikuru dzenyika nemadzitateguru, kumisikidza mabhatiri matsva kumashure kwenzira dzatinofamba uye kure nemhuri, kushandisa zvivakwa zvinotora simba rakawanda, uye kubvisa mabhatiri ekunze kana kuti street cabling kana kuti mabhatiri ekunze akatoiswa mumigwagwa. MuGreat Britain, mutemo wakaisa £ 500 miriyoni pasi pevhu kuti uise mazita aripo pasi pevhu mune zvakachengetedzwa mamiriro ekunze; muDorset, 22 pylons akakwira muna 2022 mushure me8.8 km yemutsara yakaburitswa (National Grid, Visual Impact Provision).

A high-voltage pylon with its cables lowered and anchored in concrete blocks on a fenced grassy site.
Kuvharwa kwemagetsi kuHackney Marshes, kumabvazuva kweLondon, muna October 2008; mushure menguva pfupi nyaya dzemagetsi nepylon dzakanga dzadzokera. Photo: sludgegulper, CC BY-SA 2.0

Mumigwagwa yakawanda iri kukura nesimba, dambudziko iri riri pasi pevanhu asi riri kugara kwavari: mabhande efoni, internet uye mawire emagetsi akaiswa pakati pematombo nemabalconies, achiwedzera mumwe nemumwe pasina kubvisa chero chinhu. Vanogona kuchengeta dzimba, kubvisa maruva, uye zvinogona kuva nenjodzi yemoto kana kuchengetedza.

A dense tangle of overhead cables and coiled wires on a street in Shanghai.
Kukanganisa kwemagetsi muShanghai. Photo: Jakub Hałun, CC0

Yakanyatso gadzirirwa mhinduro

Visual pollution hachisi chido. Maguta, vatyairi vezvitima uye nyika dzese dzakachena, dzakachengeteka uye dzakamira, uye dzimwe dzakaongorora kuti zvakachinja sei. Hapana mumwe wavo akazviita nekuvapomera vanhu; vakazviita nekufunga pamwe chete kuti chii chinofanira kuitwa panzira, uyezve vachitevedzera.

  • New York City: yakachena metro. Kubva 1984, kana kuti apo imwe metro car yakanga yakadzimwa, haizobvumidzwe kufambisa negraffitizve: mazita matsva aibvisa mukati memazuva maviri, kana kuti iyo car yaitora kubva mubasa. NeMay 1989, zvese zvendege zvaive zvisina graffiti, nekuti kupenda chitima kwakanga hakuine vanhu vacho (Muvhuro, 2009).
  • Philadelphia: from anti-graffiti network to open-air gallery. Chii chakatanga mu 1984 se Philadelphia Anti-Graffiti Network, ichishanda nevanonyora vechidiki ve graffiti, chakura kuita Mural Arts Philadelphia, iyo yakagadzira kupfuura 4,000 murals nenzvimbo dzemunharaunda (Mural Arts Philadelphia; City of Philadelphia). Muguta rimwe chete, kuongororwa kwakaita kuti vanhu vaone kuti kubvisa matanda akavharwa uye kuita kuti zvive nyore kufamba-famba kwakadzikira nyaya dzevanhu dziri kutaurwa nevanhu dzinoti vanhu vari kuuraya zvinhu zvakaipa ne39 percent uye kuti vanonzwa vakasununguka vachienda kunze ne58 percent (Branas et al., 2018).
  • São Paulo: guta rakazvipira kuita zvaro. Pagore ra2006, masango eguta guru reBrazil akasvibiswa nemabhizimisi uye nemahoardings akakura kwazvo, akawanda acho akaiswa zvakaipa (BBC News, 2006). Its Clean City Law, in force from January 2007, removed outdoor billboards and set size limits for shop signs (Lei 14.223). Pamusoro 15,000 mabhizimusi akauya pasi, uye ongororo dzakazivisa kuti kupfuura 70 muzana yevagari vakabvuma (Adbusters, 2007). Mugwagwa wakadzidzawo chidzidzo: vatsvakurudzi vakanyora pamusoro pezvinyorwa zvakabvumirwa nehurumende, uye mushure mekuratidzira São Paulo yakagadzira bhuku rezvemasango kuti richengetwe (Bloomberg, 2008). São Paulo yakasarudza mhinduro yakanyanya kuomarara kune nharaunda ine vanhu vakawanda; nzvimbo dzakawanda dzichafarira mitemo yakanaka yekureba, kuiswa uye kutaridzika, izvo zvatinoshanda navo pane iyi peji.
  • United States: Scenic roads. Mamwe maguta eUS uye vanhu vanodarika 700 vakasarudza kuti havabvumire kuisa mabhizimisi pazvitoro zvavo (Scenic America). Vazhinji vanowanzoita zvibvumirano nezvekuti zviratidzo zvavo zvinofanira kuonekwa sei.
  • Great Britain: pylons akatora pasi. The regulator akaisa pedyo £ 500 miriyoni kuburikidza nezvinodiwa simba mazita munzvimbo dzakachengetwa. MuDorset, 22 pylons vakadzikira muna 2022 mushure mekunge 8.8 km yemugwagwa yaiswa pasi pevhu (National Grid).
  • Maguta akawanda ane nhoroondo anodzikisa ma cables emagetsi pavanodzokorora kuvakwa kwemadhorobha, uyewo anopa mitemo yekuti zviratidzo zvemunharaunda yavo zvive zvakaita sei, zvinei ruvara uye zvinoratidzwa sei.
New York City subway cars covered in painted graffiti, standing in an open-air rail yard.
Makarizha eNew York City metro akashongedzwa negraffiti ari kugara munzira dzendege dzakavhurika. Kutanga muna 1984, New York City yakabvisa graffiti kubva kumabhasikoro akachena mukati memazuva maviri, uye muna May 1989, mabhasikoro ose aive akachena. Photo: GiorgioBertin39, CC BY-SA 4.0

Masangano ari kuita izvi

Izvi zvinonzi zvirongwa zvisina kuitika mari zvepabonde zvinoburitsa zvavanoita uye zvine mikana yekuona kuti zviri kuita sei. Tinogonawo kukubatsira iwe kana uchida, uye tinogonawo kukukurudzira kuti uwane ruzivo rwakawanda nezvezvirongwa zvavo. Local Solar System Foundation haina kumbova nehukama nadzo uye haisi kuwana chero chinhu kubva kwadzo. Pashure pekupa, verenga ongororo yegore negore uye mari dzese dzesangano.

  • Mural Arts Philadelphia (United States; yayo mari kuunganidza mubatanidzwa, the Philadelphia Mural Arts Advocates, ndeimwe tax-exempt non-profit). Anogadzira zvemagariro zvevanhu, vechidiki uye vanhu vari kudzokera kubva mujeri, uye achiita mavara emasango anopfuura 4000 kubvira 1984.
  • Keep Britain Tidy (United Kingdom, registered charity 1071737). Inoshanda pakubvisa zvicherwa uye kuparadza zvinhu, uye kuti ibatsire vanhu kuva netsika yekufara panzvimbo dzavanogara uye dziri kushanda, kusanganisira nekushanda sevanozvipira mukuchenesa.
  • Keep America Beautiful (United States, tax-exempt non-profit). Kufamba Great American Cleanup uye network yenzvimbo affiliates kuti kugadzirira clean-ups, beautification uye ruzha tsvakurudzo munyika yose.
  • Scenic America (United States, tax-exempt non-profit, founded in 1982). Inobatsira masangano kuchengetedza nzvimbo dzemasango uye maratidziro, kunyora mitemo yezviratidzo, uye kuchera zvirongo zvemagetsi.

Maitiro ekubatsira

  • Ratidza graffiti uye kukuvadzwa nekukurumidza. Mazhinji emaguta nemakambani ezvitima ane maapps kana mafoni; kuzivisa kwakanaka kunoita kuti zvigadziriswe nekukurumidza.
  • Taura kuti uwane mari yekuti ugare mumusha wako, kana kuti bvunza chipatara chako kana ichikupa mukana wekubvisa mari.
  • Join or start a clean-up day in your street, park or station.
  • Kutsigira zvinyorwa zvemusango uye mamurairo akapihwa munharaunda yako, yakarongwa nevanhu avo vachagara pedyo navo.
  • Kutaura nevana nezvekuti kutamba kwechinyakare kunotarisirwa sei, uye batsira vanhu kuwana mufananidzo, sketchbook kana chirongwa chinoita kuti basa ravo riite.
  • Support undergrounding ye cables apo masango ari kuvhurwa, uye bvunza kuti sei mapurojekiti emagetsi achange achienda kumaruwa ako.
  • Kubatsira kuisa mapeji. Kuita basa rekuzvipira kuburikidza ne contribution board.

Zvimwe zvinokosha zvekuverenga